Radio: War of the Worlds CSP (1938)

 Media Factsheet

Read Media Factsheet #176: CSP Radio - War of the Worlds. You'll need your Greenford Google login to download it. Then answer the following questions:

1) What is the history and narrative behind War of the Worlds?

Welles’ 1938 radio play is an adaption of H.G. Wells’ novel of the same name, first published in 1898. It tells the story of an alien invasion and the ensuing conflict between mankind and an extra- terrestrial race from Mars. The text has been frequently interpreted as a commentary on British Imperialism and Victorian fear and prejudice. The book has been adapted for both radio and (several) films, including the 2005 version starring Tom Cruise. It was also famously turned into a best-selling musical album by Jeff Wayne in 1978 (recently updated by Gary Barlow as a touring stage musical).

2) When was it first broadcast and what is the popular myth regarding the reaction from the audience?

Broadcast live on 30th October 1938, popular myth has it that thousands of New Yorkers fled their homes in panic, and all across America people crowded the streets to witness for themselves the real space battle between earth and the Martians. The Trenton Police Department (close to the site of the fictional invasion) received over 2000 calls in less than two hours

3) How did the New York Times report the reaction the next day?

The New York Times switchboard received 875 calls from concerned listeners wanting to know where they would be safe.

4) How did author Brad Schwartz describe the the broadcast and its reaction?

history's first viral media phenomenon and a masterclass in using radio's "pastiche" style

5) Why did Orson Welles use hybrid genres and pastiche and what effect might it have had on the audience?

His version of War of the Worlds reworks a Victorian narrative about an alien invasion (which he considered “boring”) and turns it into an exciting radio play through his use of pastiche. By borrowing the conventions of the radio newscast, he is able to create real moments of shock and awe, which almost certainly account for the strong reaction it received. By creating a hybrid form – mixing conventional storytelling with news conventions – Welles blurred the boundaries between fact and fiction in a way that audiences had never experienced.

6) How did world events in 1938 affect the way audiences interpreted the show?

In September 1938, one month prior to the plays broadcast, Hitler signed the Munich Agreement annexing portions of Czechoslovakia and creating the ‘Sudetenland’. Europe’s failed appeasement of Germany was viewed with much concern and for many it seemed that another world war was inevitable. 

7) Which company broadcast War of the Worlds in 1938?

At this time, both the radio networks, including CBS, frequently interrupted programmes to issue news bulletins with updates on the situation in Europe.

8) Why might the newspaper industry have deliberately exaggerated the response to the broadcast?

In order to protect their advertising revenue and discredit radio as an upstart, irresponsible rival.

9) Does War of the Worlds provide evidence to support the Frankfurt School's Hypodermic Needle theory?

Orson Welles’ broadcast is frequently cited as an example to support passive audience theories, such as the Frankfurt School’s ‘Hypodermic Syringe Theory’. This states that audiences consume and respond to media texts in an unquestioning way, believing what they read, see

or hear. 

10) How might Gerbner's cultivation theory be applied to the broadcast?

Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory might offer a more accurate explanation of the audience’s behaviour in response to the radio broadcast since it emphasises the longer-term effects that media texts have upon audiences. Based on his research into television viewing, cultivation theory states that high frequency viewers of television are more susceptible to media messages and the belief that they are real.

11) Applying Hall's Reception Theory, what could be the preferred and oppositional readings of the original broadcast?

Stuart Hall’s Reception Theory is useful when considering how the audience for War of the Worlds interpreted the text (as either fact or fiction). He argues that audiences might read a media text in different ways. The dominant or preferred reading by the audience is the one intended by the creator of the text. However, a person might read it in an oppositional way depending upon factors such as their age, gender or background. For example, a young male is likely to ‘read’ page three of The Sun as a bit of harmless fun (the preferred reading), whereas a female might regard it as offensive. Hall also suggests that readings of a media text might be negotiated. This is an acceptance of the preferred reading but modified in a way that reflects the audience’s own position, experiences and interests.

12) Do media products still retain the ability to fool audiences as it is suggested War of the Worlds did in 1938? Has the digital media landscape changed this?

The 1938 and 1949 radio broadcasts of War of the Worlds clearly had the power to deceive at least some of the listening audience, but could any media product create such an impact today? Are audiences too sophisticated and media-literate to be fooled by a similar stunt? In the late 1990s, and inspired by Orson Welles’ 1938 broadcast, two young filmmakers made the low budget film The Blair Witch Project. Supposedly made up ‘found footage’ shot by three student filmmakers who go missing while shooting a documentary about a local legend (the Blair Witch), the film sparked debate among audiences as to whether the footage was actually real. However, given that audiences received the text in a movie theatre (or on video and DVD) it is unlikely to have fooled the audience in quite the same way – or with the same authority – as a series of radio news bulletins.

Media Magazine article on War of the Worlds

Read this excellent article on War of the Worlds in Media Magazine. You can find it in our Media Magazine archive - issue 69, page 10. Answer the following questions:

1) What reasons are provided for why the audience may have been scared by the broadcast in 1938? 

It is true that many of the listeners tuning into the radio on night of October 30th, 1938 were scared – some even really believed aliens had landed. Renegade director Orson Welles (now most famous for directing and starring in the film Citizen Kane) chose to tell the story using realistic radio conventions – such as flash news bulletins, expert interviews and vox pops – and set it in contemporary New Jersey. He didn’t intentionally do it in order to to fool the public – the show even carried a disclaimer at the beginning and the end, making it clear that it was fiction. Nevertheless, for those who tuned in late, it seemed totally authentic and there was a bit of a scare

2) How did newspapers present the story? 

The broadcast caused real panic for some late-tuning listeners due to its realistic news-bulletin format, though newspapers heavily exaggerated the scale of the hysteria to discredit radio as a news competitor.

3) How does the article describe the rise of radio? 

Radio became extremely popular during the 1920s and 1930s. By the late 1930s, four out of five homes owned a radio, and people trusted it as a source of news, comfort, advice and entertainment. Its popularity worried newspapers because people could get news and entertainment more quickly and realistically through radio instead of buying newspapers or records.

4) What does the article say about regulation of radio in the 1930s? 

Radio was still a new medium, so many people wanted it to be more closely regulated. Older generations feared that uncensored and unregulated radio would corrupt young people. After the War of the Worlds broadcast, newspapers supported calls for censorship, and a senator proposed creating a radio censorship board. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) investigated CBS but found no wrongdoing

5) How does the article apply media theories to the WOTW? Give examples.

Cultivation Theory (George Gerbner): The article suggests that the story of War of the Worlds became so famous because newspapers repeatedly told the story of mass panic, helping to "cultivate" that belief over time.

Media Effects Theory (Albert Bandura): It explains that Bandura's work made people believe media can directly influence audiences, although the article notes his experiment has since been criticised.

Reception Theory (Stuart Hall): The article argues that audiences interpreted the broadcast differently based on their own experiences. Some accepted it as entertainment, while others believed it was real and panicked, showing dominant, negotiated and oppositional readings

6) Look at the box on page 13 of real newspaper headlines. Pick out two and write them here - you could use these in an exam answer.

"Radio Play Terrifies Nation; Hysteria Grips Folks Listening in Late"

"Fake Radio War Stirs Terror"

A/A* Extension tasks: Analysis and opinion questions

1) Why do you think the 1938 broadcast of War of the Worlds has become such a significant moment in media history?

It was important because many people believed the fake news report. It showed the power of radio.

2) War of the Worlds feels like a 1938 version of 'fake news'. But which is the greater example of fake news - Orson Welles's use of radio conventions to create realism or the newspapers exaggerating the audience reaction to discredit radio?

The newspapers were a bigger example of fake news because they exaggerated the panic to make radio look bad.

3) Do you agree with the Frankfurt School's Hypodermic Needle theory? If not, was there a point in history audiences were more susceptible to believing anything they saw or heard in the media?

I do not fully agree. Audiences are not always passive, but people may believe media more during times of fear or uncertainty.

4) Has the digital media age made the Hypodermic Needle model more or less relevant? Why?

The Hypodermic Needle model is less relevant because people can question and compare information online.

5) Do you agree with George Gerbner's Cultivation theory - that suggests exposure to the media has a gradual but significant effect on audience's views and beliefs? Give examples to support your argument.

I agree with Cultivation theory because media can slowly influence opinions. For example, violent TV shows may affect how people view crime.

6) Is Gerbner's Cultivation theory more or less valid today than it would have been in 1938? Why?

Gerbner's theory is more valid today because people spend more time exposed to media every day.